We present empirical evidence from city-regions around the world to illustrate our theory. Addressing disconnections requires MNEs to re-orient their strategies while dealing with disruptions requires undertaking risk mitigation. Finally, we distinguish between disconnection, which is an outcome of MNE strategy, and global disruptions, like the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, which are primarily stochastic events. Some MNEs are better able to implement a local spawning strategy, due to industry factors like innovation clock-speed, and firm characteristics like organizational path dependency. The second, that we call ‘local spawning,’ involves engaging with the local entrepreneurial eco-system to create and renew local connectedness, diffusing populist responses. We argue that it exacerbates local disconnectedness. The first is the traditional one: the ‘global orchestration’ of resources and markets. We develop approaches to new IB theory, addressing the interdependencies of MNEs and city-regions that we propose as a crucial avenue for future research. This often creates local disconnectedness that energizes the current populist backlash against MNE activities. Much of the rising international connectedness of city-regions has developed from MNEs replacing local connections with (superior) international ones.
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